Reading Passage 1-Using Wind-up Cell Phone Chargers

Questions 1 – 14
Read the text and answer Questions 1 – 7

So what do you do when your battery on your cell phone runs out and you’re forced to use some muscle with your wind-up charger? Fortunately, most chargers are very small and lightweight, even smaller than most cell phones, so they’re easy to carry with you and could easily store in a car’s glove compartment, a purse or backpack. They typically weigh no more than a couple of ounces. When your phone needs some extra juice, simply connect the wind-up charger to your cell phone’s input.
To give the phone’s battery its power, you’ll need to turn the crank vigorously. Most wind-up charger instructions say to crank at a rate of two revolutions per second, although turning the crank slower or faster is fine and will still provide power to the battery. Depending on the model, you can get 25-30 minutes of extra standby power to a cell phone after just a few minutes of solid cranking. You should only be able to get about 6 minutes of call time from the same amount of exercise, however, since it requires more power to send out signals.
If you have a hands free set like a Bluetooth earpiece, you can even hold the charger and talk at the same time, since charging is a two-handed operation. As long as you keep turning the handle, the power you provide to charge the phone should be greater than the power needed to keep the phone on. This allows you to talk and provide a charge continuously.
What about the different types of inputs on cell phones? Often one of the more frustrating things about losing battery power on your cell phone is when someone else actually has a charger available, but the parts don’t fit. Fortunately, many wind-up cell phone chargers come with adapters that fit most phones so you should be able to find the right charge input.
And if the potential to create battery power without the use of an outlet wasn’t enough, some models, such as the Sidewinder, even have a built-in LED light that will work after a few seconds of cranking. This feature could be helpful in the event you’ve lost your phone and there’s no other available illumination.

Read the text and answer Questions 8 – 14

One Laptop per Child – Frequently Asked Questions

A What is the XO?
The XO laptop is Linux-based, with a dual-mode display-both a full-color, transmissive mode, and a second display option that is black and white, reflective, and sunlight-readable at three times the resolution. Them XO-1.5 has a 1GHz processor and 1GB of memory, with 4 GB of /Flash disk; it does not have a hard disk, but it does have three USB ports and an SD-card slot for expansion. The laptops have wireless broadband that, among other things, allows them to work as a mesh network; each laptop is able to talk to its nearest neighbors, creating an ad hoc, local area network. The laptops are designed to be extremely power efficient, enabling the use of innovative power systems (such as solar, human power, generators, wind or water power).

B Why do children in developing nations need laptops?
Laptops are both a window and a tool: a window out to the world and a tool with which to think. They are a wonderful way for all children to learn learning through independent interaction and exploration.

C Why not a desktop computer, or-even better-a recycled desktop machine?
Desktops are cheaper, but mobility is important, especially with regard to taking the computer home at night. Kids in the developing world need the newest technology, especially really rugged hardware and innovative software. Recent work with schools in Maine has shown the huge value of using a laptop across all of one’s studies, as well as for play. Bringing the laptop home engages the family. In one Cambodian village where we have been working, there is no electricity, thus the laptop is, among other things, the brightest light source in the home. Regarding recycled machines: if we estimate 100 million available used desktops, and each one requires only one hour of human attention to refurbish, reload, and handle, that is tens of thousands of work years. Thus, while we definitely encourage the recycling of used computers, it is not the solution for One Laptop per Child.

D How is it possible to get the cost so low?
First, by dramatically lowering the cost of the display. The first-generation machine will have a novel, dual-mode display that represents improvements to the LCD displays commonly found in inexpensive DVD players. These displays can be used in high-resolution black and white in bright sunlight-all at a cost of approximately $35.
Second, we take the fat out of the systems. Today’s laptops have become obese. Two-thirds of their software is used to manage the other third, which mostly does the same functions nine different ways. Third, we market the laptops in very large numbers, directly to ministries of education, which can distribute them like textbooks.

E Why is it important for each child to have a computer?
One does not think of community pencils-kids have their own. They are tools to think with, sufficiently inexpensive to be used for work and play, drawing, writing, and mathematics. A computer can be the same, but far more powerful. Furthermore, there are many reasons it is important for a child to own something-like a football, doll, or book-not the least of which being that these belongings will be well-maintained through love and care.

F What can a $2000 laptop do that the $200 version cannot?
The XO laptop is built for learning and designed specifically with children in mind. Because of this, the features deemed most valuable for its purposes are as good (and in many cases, better) than comparable features on a $2000 laptop. For instance, the XO’s screen can be viewed as clearly as a newspaper in broad daylight, and the wireless range of the XO is several times longer than your average laptop. It’s also more rugged, resilient and power efficient than most other laptops on the market. While other features, such as power and speed, do not compare to more expensive machines, they meet the necessary requirements for learning.

G How will these be distributed?
In the general case, the laptops will be sold to governments and issued to children by schools on a basis of one laptop per child; using this model, we began deployments around the world at the end of 2007. An additional allocation of machines has been used to seed the developer community, to enable a broader community of participation.

H Who is the original design manufacturer (ODM) of the XO?
Quanta Computer Inc. of Taiwan has been chosen as the original design manufacturer (ODM) for the XO project. The decision was made after the board reviewed bids from several possible manufacturing companies.

Reading Passage 2-How to Choose Charities

Questions 15 – 27
Read the text and answer Questions 15 – 21

You should pick the charities and give money before being asked. Not only are you more likely to find groups whose missions matter to you, but your money will go further. When donors give money in response to a fund-raising appeal, only a portion of the gift goes for the charity’s mission, according to the American Institute of Philanthropy. The rest will be spent on the cost of the appeal. Here are some other tips to help make sure your money is well spent.

1. Give to groups you know It’s not always possible, of course, but experts say it’s the best thing to do. “Be very reluctant to give to strangers,” says Dan Moore, vice president of public affairs for Guide Star, an online source of financial information on charities. “If you know the organization and you know their work, you will know with some degree of confidence that your gift will be put to good use.”

2. Make sure the charity is the one you think it is That police association may be based in another state, and do nothing for your local officers. The group that says it grants wishes for sick children may have deliberately adopted a name similar to a well-respected organization. Don’t assume you know the group or what it does.

3. Ask if your gift is tax-deductible Some nonprofit organizations that solicit gifts are not charities, meaning that you can’t deduct your donation at tax time.

4. Make sure you understand the group’s work Charities tackle problems in different ways. For example, groups that try to lower the rate of teenage pregnancy may do so by teaching sex education, by promoting sexual abstinence or by offering programs that aim to build self-esteem among teen girls. “There’s no single right answer,” says Guide Star’s Moore. “You want to give a gift that’s addressing a cause that tugs at your heartstrings, in a way that best addresses your needs.”

5. Make sure the charity is legitimate. The Internal Revenue Service maintains a list of all organizations registered as charities. Also check with your state’s attorney general or charities bureau, which is responsible for policing charities within the state
and can provide a wealth of information about them. Don’t know your state’s charity regulator? Go towww.nasconet.org, a national association of state charity officers, to find yours.

6. Don’t be afraid to ask questions Charities are required to provide information about their programs and expenses. Start with these questions: How will my gift be spent? How many people did you help last year? In what way? If you don’t get adequate answers, don’t give anything.

7. Find out about expenses Even if the charity is a good one, you might feel cheated if you later find out that most of your gift went to pay the people who called you up and asked for money, or to pay the salaries of the group’s top officers. In general, efficient groups will spend at least 65 percent of their funds on the causes they support, says Laurie Styron, an analyst with the Chicago-based American Institute of Philanthropy, which rates charities for donors. The percentage may be lower for groups that support controversial causes such as abortion rights, since those groups have more trouble raising money. You can ask the charity for this information, which it is required to provide, or search the Web. The New York attorney general’s office, for example, has for years published an annual report, “Pennies for Charity,” that details how much money specific charities receive from various telephone appeals.

8. Think twice before giving to a university or hospital While worthy, these institutions are also the heavyweights of the fundraising world, bringing in hundreds of millions of dollars a year. For example, Harvard University’s endowment, the amount of money it has tucked away in savings, now stands at more than $25 billion. Meanwhile, soup kitchens, homeless shelters and other groups often struggle to raise enough to keep going. Many arts organizations also have trouble balancing
their budgets. Such groups may not have the resources to solicit funds from you, but that doesn’t mean they won’t appreciate your gift and make good use of it.

9. Protect yourself Don’t give out credit card or personal information in response to phone, e-mail or door-to-door appeals:
They may be fraudulent. If giving online, locate the charity’s Web site yourself rather than linking through an e-mail. Above all, don’t give cash. Your best bet is to mail a check to the organization.

Read the text and answer Questions 22 – 27

Ethical volunteering overseas

In recent years, concern has grown that some organisations are failing to meet the expectations of overseas volunteers and that volunteers themselves have not thought through what their placement will involve. ‘Volunteers frequently feel let down by the experiences that they have in their host environments,’ says the charity Tourism Concern. ‘Many of those who volunteer do not necessarily understand that they will be involved in development work or what the implications of that are for themselves and the host communities.’
So, before you sign a contract or hand over any money, spend time working out what you want from your overseas volunteering assignment and be realistic about how to achieve this.
Questions to ask yourself
For many people, volunteering overseas is a life-changing experience, but a successful placement can only come from matching what you want and can offer with what actually needs to be done. Ethical volunteering is about ensuring the contribution you make is meaningful to the host community and has a lasting, positive impact.
So, start by asking yourself the basics. Why do you want to volunteer overseas? What existing skills and experience do you have to offer already? Consider the practicalities – do you really want to spend months away from your family and friends? Are you prepared to spend time in a country which might not have the infrastructure and amenities you’re used to? And are you able to cope with the cost? See our article on finding an opportunity overseas for more information.
Once you have worked out what you have to offer, you are better placed to judge whether your contribution overseas will be meaningful and worthwhile.
It’s also worth asking yourself whether you have fully considered the options available closer to home. There are many ways to make a difference that don’t first require a 12-hour flight and sometimes it can be better to volunteer at home and be a tourist overseas.
Choosing an ethical organisation
It’s easy to assume that if you are volunteering then you’re bound to be doing good, but that isn’t necessarily the case. For example, by offering to work for free, you might even be taking away a job from a local person. A good organisation will ensure that it works in partnership with local communities to ensure volunteers only provide a service a community genuinely needs.
Ethical Volunteering has put together a list of seven questions to help you pick an ethical overseas volunteering placement:
1. Exactly what work will you be doing? Can the organisation provide you with a brief job description?
2. Does the organisation work with any local partner organisations?
3. Does the organisation make any financial contribution to its volunteer programmes? If so exactly how much, minus any payments for food and accommodation for volunteers, is this contribution?
4. Does the organisation have any policies on eco and ethical tourism practices, and if so what are these and how are they implemented?
5. What time frame is the volunteer programme run on? How long has the programme been running and what are the plans for the future?
6. Can the organisation give you precise contact details for your chosen programme?
7.What support and training will you receive?
Further detail about these questions is available in an Ethical Volunteering leaflet. Travelling far from home, especially to a developing country, may spark other questions. For example, if the country has an oppressive government, what is the organisation’s attitude towards it and relationship with it? Carbon emissions from flying contribute to global warming – what is the attitude of the organisation towards this? These are tough questions with no easy answers. A good organisation should welcome questions and be ready with some options.
Know before you go If possible, meet a representative of an organisation face-to-face before signing up to a placement. You
should also ask them if you can be put in touch with other volunteers – either those still overseas of some who have recently returned. You can meet people yourself through Facebook, Twitter and new volunteering network i-volunteer. Some organisations, like VSO, have their own online communities where you can ask questions and seek advice.
Of course, everyone will have different experiences and one person, is unlikely to persuade you either way. But other volunteers can at least give you a feel for what the placement is like and suggest some further questions you might want to ask the organisation. The web is also your friend when it comes to digging for information on your chosen organisation – check out review sites like www.gapyearreview.co.uk.
Time spent researching before you make a decision about whether or where to go is definitely worthwhile, and reputable organisations should welcome your enquiries. Volunteering overseas frequently requires significant cost and commitment. And it can go wrong, so never be shy of asking what might seem difficult or obvious questions.

Reading Passage 3 – Fighting poverty in emerging markets

Questions 28 – 40
Read the text and answer Questions 28 – 40

A At the recent food summit in Rome, former President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva donned a pair of bright-red boxing gloves labelled “Hunger Free” and waved to the cameras. They were his prize-if that is the right term-for Brazil’s success in topping a league table drawn up by ActionAid, a British charity, of countries that have done most to reduce hunger. The occasion was a stunt, of course, but had a serious purpose: to show that even the poorest places can mitigate poverty and hunger. Brazil is not in that category, but Ghana, Vietnam and Malawi, which came third, fourth and fifth, are.

B ActionAid’s list was inevitably influenced by the sort of things that NGOs love: social-protection programmes, constitutional and legal guarantees against poverty, the rejection of free markets. But now comes a more rigorous assessment of poverty-reduction in Brazil, China and India by Martin Ravallion, the director of the World Bank’s Development Research Group. It also suggests that hunger is not simply something that growth will take care of. Mr Ravallion shows that the performance of the giants varies a lot more than their growth. And he too regards Brazil’s performance as exceptional.

C Between them, Brazil, China and India account for half the world’s poorest people and an even bigger share of those who have escaped poverty. In 1981, 84% of China’s population was below the poverty line of $1.25 a day (in 2005 prices); in 2005 the share was just 16%. This amounted to a 6.6% proportionate annual rate of poverty reduction-the difference between the growth rates of the number of poor and the total population.

D Nobody did as well as China. Brazil’s share of those in poverty fell by half from 17% to 8%, an annual reduction of 3.2%. India did least well, cutting the share below the poverty line from 60% to 42% between 1981 and 2005. This implies an annual reduction of 1.5% a year, though there are problems with Indian statistics; using different consumption figures yields an annual reduction of 3%, comparable to Brazil’s.

E As Mr Ravallion points out, these figures do not mirror growth rates. Brazil cut poverty by more than India despite much lower growth, just over 1% a year in 1993-2005, compared with India’s 5%. If you calculate the rate of poverty reduction for each unit of GDP growth per person, Brazil did even better than China: the ratio is 4.3 for Brazil, 0.8 for China and 0.4 for India (0.8 if you use the adjusted consumption figures). Per unit of growth, Brazil reduced its proportional poverty rate five times more than China or India did.

F How did it do so well? The main explanation has to do with inequality. This, as measured by the Gini index, has fallen sharply in Brazil since 1993, while it has soared in China and risen in India. Greater inequality dampens the poverty-reducing effect of growth. Government policy played a big role in reducing inequality. Brazil’s main cash-transfer programme, called Bolsa Familia, provides help to 11m families, or 60% of all those in the poorest tenth. In contrast, social security in China is still provided largely through the enterprise system (i.e. companies), so it tends to bypass those not in work. And government
interventions in India are extraordinarily perverse. People in the poorest fifth are the least likely to have any kind of ration card, the key to public handouts, whereas the richest fifth are the most likely to.

G Mr Ravallion concludes with some useful lessons. In all three countries, economic stability made a big difference for the better. China cut poverty the most, but did best early on, when agriculture was growing fastest. As growth shifted towards the cities and manufacturing, inequality rose. It might have done even better with Brazilian-style “progressive” policies. India had both growth and social policies, yet did worst because its policies in fact did rather little to help the poor. With its caste system, and bad state schools, India may be a more unequal society than the numbers alone suggest. Both Asian countries could learn some lessons from Brazil. But Brazil, in turn, will not be able to match China’s record in reducing the number of poor people without higher growth.